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Sumer (or ''Shumer'', Egyptian ''Sangar'', Bib. Shinar , native ''ki-en-gir'') ( 3500 - 2334 BCE ) was an ancient civilization located in the southern part of Mesopotamia (modern day southeastern Iraq) from the time of settlement by the Sumerians until the time of Babylonia . The term "Sumerian" applies to all speakers of the Sumerian Language . It is the oldest civilization in the world. BACKGROUND The term "Sumerian" is an , first applied by the Akkad ians. The Sumerians called themselves "the black-headed people" (''sag-gi-ga'') and their land "place of the civilized lords" (''ki-en-gir''). The Akkadian word ''Shumer'' possibly represents this name in dialect. The Sumerians were a non-. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands that where in this region, with the help of the Tigris and the Euphrates. The challenge for any population attempting to dwell in , excavated by the French in the 1980s, where 8 levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. Sumerian speakers spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a social organization and a technology that enabled them, through their control of the water, to survive and prosper in a difficult environment where, other than a hypothesized hunter-gatherer population in the marshlands near the Persian Gulf and seasonal nomads, they had no competition. A distinctive style of painted pottery spread throughout Mesopotamia in the Ubaid period, when the ancient Sumerian religious center of Eridu was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk . The archaeological transition from the Ubaid period to the Uruk period is marked by a gradual shift from painted pottery domestically produced on a slow wheel, to a great variety of unpainted pottery mass-produced by specialists on fast wheels. The date of this transition, from Ubaid 4 to Early Uruk, is in dispute, but Calibrated Radiocarbon Dates from Tell Awayli would place it as early as 4500 BC . By the time of the Uruk period (4500- 3100 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods being inexpensively transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large temple-centered cities where centralized administrations could afford to employ specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area - from the Mediterranean Sea in the west, to the Taurus Mountains in Turkey , and as far east as Central Iran . The Uruk period civilization, exported by Sumerian traders and colonists, had a stimulating and influential effect on surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies. The cities of Sumer could not maintain remote, long-distance colonies purely by military force; the domestic horse did not appear in Sumer until the Ur III period - one thousand years after the Uruk period ended. The end of the Uruk period coincided with a dry period from c. 3200 - 2900 BC that marked the end of a long wetter, warmer climate period from ca. 9,000 to 5,000 years ago called the Holocene Climatic Optimum . When the historical record opens, the Sumerians seem to be limited to southern Mesopotamia, although very early rulers such as Lugal-Anne-Mundu are indeed recorded as expanding to neighboring areas as far as the Mediterranean, Taurus and Zagros, and not long after legendary figures like Enmerkar and Gilgamesh , who are associated in mythology with the historical transfer of culture from Eridu to Uruk, were supposed to have reigned. HISTORY In the earliest known period Sumer was divided into several independent city-states, whose limits were defined by canals and boundary stones. Each was centered on a temple dedicated to the patron god or goddess of the city and ruled over by a priest or king, who was intimately tied to the city's religious rites. Some of the major cities included Eridu , Kish , Lagash , Uruk , Ur , and Nippur . As these cities developed, they sought to assert primacy over each other, falling into a millennium of almost incessant warfare over water rights, trade routes, and tribute from nomadic tribes. The ancient Sumerian King List recounts the early dynasties. Like many other archaic lists of rulers, it includes several legendary names. The first name on the list whose existence is authenticated through archaeological evidence is that of Enmebaragesi of Kish, whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epics. This has led some to suggest that Gilgamesh really was a historical king of Uruk. The dynasty of Lagash is well known through important monuments, and one of the first empires in recorded history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa , and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma , arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. Lugal-Zage-Si , the priest-king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty, took Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He is the last ethnically Sumerian king before the arrival of the Semitic named king, Sargon Of Akkad . Downfall Under Sargon, the Semitic Akkadian Language came to the fore in inscriptions, although Sumerian did not disappear completely. The Sumerian language still appears on dedicatory statues and official seals of Sargon and his heirs. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre and post Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflictSee ''Toward the Image of Tammuz and Other Essays on Mesopotamian History and Culture'' by T. Jacobsen. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were conquered by Sargon. Following the downfall of the Akkadian Empire at the hands of barbarian Gutian s, another native Sumerian ruler, Gudea of Lagash, rose to prominence, promoting artistic development and continuing the practice of the Sargonid kings' claims to divinity. Later on, the 3rd Dynasty Of Ur was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the influx of the waves of Amorites who were to found the Babylonia n Empire. AGRICULTURE AND HUNTING The Sumerians grew Barley , Chickpea s, Lentil s, Wheat , Date s, Onion s, Garlic , Lettuce , Leek s and Mustard . They also raised cattle, Sheep , Goat s, and Pig s. They used Ox en as their primary beasts of burden and Donkey s as their primary transport animal. Sumerians hunted fish and Fowl . Sumerian agriculture depended heavily on irrigation. The irrigation was accomplished by the use of Shaduf s, canals, channels, Dykes , Weir s, and reservoirs. The canals required frequent repair and continual removal of Silt . The government required individuals to work on the canals, although the rich were able to exempt themselves. Using the canals, farmers would flood their fields and then drain the water. Next they let oxen stomp the ground and kill weeds. They then dragged the fields with Pickaxe s. After drying, they Plowed , Harrowed , Raked the ground three times, and pulverized it with a Mattock . Sumerians harvested during the dry Fall Season in three-person teams consisting of a Reaper , a Binder , and a Sheaf Arranger . The farmers would use Threshing Wagon s to separate the Cereal heads from the Stalk s and then use Threshing Sled s to disengage the grain. They then Winnowed the grain/chaff mixture. ARCHITECTURE The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. Sumerian structures were made of plano-convex Mudbrick , not fixed with Mortar or with Cement . Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, and so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities, so that they came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resultant hills are known as Tells , and are found throughout the ancient Near East. The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the Ziggurat s, large terraced platforms which supported temples. Some scholars have theorized that these structures might have been the basis of the Tower Of Babel described in Genesis . Sumerian cylinder Seal s also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those built by the Marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq until recent years such as 400ad. Sumerian temples and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as Buttress es, Recess es, Half Column s, and Clay Nail s. CULTURE Sumerian culture may be traced to two main centers, Eridu in the south and Nippur in the north. Eridu and Nippur may be regarded as contrasting poles of Sumerian religion. The deity Enlil , around whose sanctuary Nippur had grown up, was considered lord of the ghost-land, and his gifts to mankind were said to be the spells and incantations that the spirits of good or evil were compelled to obey. The world he governed was a mountain; the creatures that he had made lived underground. Eridu, on the other hand, was the home of the culture god . Long before history is recorded, however, the cultures of Eridu and Nippur had coalesced. While Babylon seems to have been a colony of Eridu, Ur , the immediate neighbour of Eridu, may have been a colony of Nippur, since its moon god was the son of Enlil of Nippur. But in the admixture of the two cultures, the influence of Eridu was predominant. Historian Alan Marcus has been quoted as saying that "Sumerians held a rather dour perspective on Life ." One Sumerian wrote: "Tears, lament, anguish, and depression are within me. Suffering overwhelms me. Evil fate holds me and carries off my life. Malignant sickness bathes me." Another wrote, "Why am I counted among the ignorant? Food is all about, yet my food is hunger. On the day shares were allotted, my allotted share was suffering." Though women were protected by late Sumerian law and were able to achieve a higher status in Sumer than in other contemporary Civilization s, the culture was male-dominated. ECONOMY AND TRADE Discoveries of Obsidian from far-away locations in Anatolia and Lapis Lazuli from northeastern Afghanistan , beads from Dilmun (modern Bahrain ), and several seals inscribed with the Indus Valley Script suggest a remarkably wide-ranging network of ancient trade centered around the Persian Gulf . The Epic Of Gilgamesh refers to trade with far lands for goods such as wood that were scarce in Mesopotamia. In particular, cedar from Lebanon was prized. The Sumerians used slaves, although they were not a major part of the economy. Slave Women worked as Weavers , pressers, Miller s, and Porter s. Sumerian Potters decorated pots with Cedar Oil Paint s. The potters used a Bow Drill to produce the Fire needed for baking the pottery. Sumerian Masons and Jewelers knew and made use of Alabaster ( Calcite ), Ivory , Gold , Silver , carnelian and Lapis Lazuli . MILITARY City Wall s defended Sumerian cities. The Sumerians engaged in Siege Warfare between their cities, and the Mudbrick walls failed to deter foes who had the time to pry out the bricks. Sumerian armies consisted mostly of Infantry . Light infantrymen carried Battle-axe s, Dagger s, and Spear s. The regular infantry also used Copper Helmet s, Felt Cloaks , and Leather Kilt s. The Sumerian military used carts harnessed to Onager s. These early Chariot s functioned less effectively in combat than did later designs, and some have suggested that these chariots served primarily as transports, though the crew carried battle-axes and Lance s. The Sumerian chariot comprised a four or two- Wheel ed device manned by a crew of two and harnessed to four onagers. The cart was composed of a Woven Basket and the wheels had a solid three-piece design. Sumerians used Slings and simple bows. (The Recurve Bow is a later invention.) RELIGION Like other cities of Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, Sumer was a polytheistic, or Henotheistic , society. There was no organized set of gods, with each city-state having its own patrons, temples, and priest-kings; but the Sumerians were probably the first to write down their beliefs. Sumerian beliefs were also the inspiration for much of later Mesopotamian Mythology , Religion , and Astrology . The Sumerians worshipped An as the primary god, equivalent to "heaven"-- indeed, the word "an" in Sumerian means "sky". An's closest cohorts were Enki in the south, Enlil in the north and Inana , the deification of Venus, the morning (eastern) and evening (western) star. The sun was Utu , the moon was Nanna , Nammu or Namma was the Mother Goddess , probably considered to be the original matrix; there were hundreds of minor Deities . The Sumerian God s (Sumerian ''dingir'', plural ''dingir-dingir'' or ''dingir-a-ne-ne'') had associations with different cities, and their religious importance often waxed and waned with the political power of the associated cities. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. The gods often expressed their anger and frustration through earthquakes and storms: the gist of Sumerian religion was that humanity was at the mercy of the gods. Sumerians believed that the Universe consisted of a flat disk enclosed by a tin Dome . The Sumerian Afterlife involved a descent into a gloomy Netherworld to spend eternity in a wretched Existence as a Gidim (ghost). Sumerian s''. Russian-born Israeli writer and linguist Zecharia Sitchin has written many books advocating the view that the Sumerian gods were alien astronauts. He supports this opinion with his own translation of Sumerian cuneiform script. He is one of only hundreds of scholars who can decipher the ancient language. He also argues that the ancient Sumerians knew of Neptune and Uranus, and that the sun is the centre of the solar system. TECHNOLOGY Examples of Sumerian technology include: the Wheel , Cuneiform , Arithmetic , Lunisolar Calendar , Bronze , Copper , Gold , Silver , Leather , Saw s, Chisel s, Hammer s, Braces , Bit s, Nail s, Pin s, Ring s, Hoe s, Axe s, Knives , Lancepoints , Arrowheads , Sword s, Glue , Dagger s, Waterskin s, Bag s, Harness es, Boat s, Armor , Quiver s, Scabbard s, Boot s, Sandal (footwear) , Harpoon s, and Beer Brewing . The Sumerians had three main types of boats:
LANGUAGE AND WRITING The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of tablets written in Sumerian. Sumerian pre- Cuneiform script has been discovered on tablets dating to around 3500 BC . The Sumerian language is generally regarded as a Language Isolate in Linguistics because it belongs to no known language family; Akkadian belongs to the Afro-Asiatic Languages . There have been many failed attempts to connect Sumerian to other Language Groups . It is an Agglutinative Language ; in other words, Morpheme s ("units of meaning") are added together to create words. Sumerians invented picture-hieroglyphs that developed into later Cuneiform , and theirs is the oldest known Written Human Language . An extremely large body of hundreds of thousands of texts in the Sumerian language has survived, the great majority of these on clay tablets. Known Sumerian texts include personal and business letters and transactions, receipts, lexical lists, laws, hymns and prayers, magical incantations, and scientific texts including mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects like statues or bricks are also very common. Many texts survive in multiple copies because they were repeatedly transcribed by scribes-in-training. Sumerian continued to be the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become the ruling race. Understanding Sumerian texts today can be problematic even for experts. Most difficult are the earliest texts, which in many cases don't give the full grammatical structure of the language. LEGACY Sumer left a lasting legacy of inventions which are still useful today. Many authorities credit them with the invention of the Wheel and the potter's wheel. Their Cuneiform writing system was the first we have evidence of (with the possible exception of the highly controversial Old European Script ), pre-dating Egyptian Hieroglyphics by at least seventy five years. They were among the first formal astronomers, and their view was of a Heliocentric solar system composed of 5 planets. (Only 5 planets could be seen with the naked eye.) They developed mathematics using 6 and 10-based number system. Using this number system, they invented the clock with its 60 seconds, 60 minutes, and 12 hours, and the 12 month calendar which we still use today. They may have invented military formations. They developed legal and administrative systems with courts and jails and first city states. With invention of writing, Sumerians were able to record their knowledge and pass it on to others. This gave rise to schools and education, mathematics, religion, bureaucracy, and division of labor and social class system. Perhaps most importantly, the Sumerians ushered in the age of intensive Agriculture in Ancient Mesopotamia . Emmer Wheat , Barley , sheep (starting as Mouflon ) and cattle (starting as Aurochs ) were foremost among the species cultivated and raised for the first time on a grand scale. These inventions and innovations easily place the Sumerians among the most creative cultures in human pre-history and history. NEW SUMER Because ancient Sumer was located in southern Iraq , a new movement was started in 2005 by many secular Shiites (led by a Baqr Yassin) to make the southern three provinces of Basra, Amara, and Nasariyah into an autonomous zone called "Sumer," similar to the arrangement the Kurds have with Kurdistan now. He is calling for local control of resources—including the vast oil reserves there—and some kind of control of military units in the region. SEE ALSO FURTHER READING
EXTERNAL LINKS Geography History Language
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