Information About ™Roman Empire |
|
The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Ancient Roman realm in the centuries following its reorganization under the leadership of Augustus in the late 1st Century BC . After Constantinople was made its capital and the Western parts were lost, the Eastern part continued as the Eastern Roman Empire , to as the Byzantine Empire . ''Roman Empire'' is also used as translation of the expression, ''Imperium Romanum'' , probably the best-known Latin expression where the word ''imperium'' is used in the meaning of a territory; the "Roman Empire" denotes that part of the world under Roman rule. The expansion of this Roman territory beyond the borders of the initial City-state of Rome had started long before the state organization turned into an Empire. In its territorial peak after the conquest of Dacia by Trajan , the Roman Empire controlled approximately 5 900 000 km². (2,300,000 sq.mi.) of land surface, thereby being the largest empire in the Classical Antiquity period of European history. In the centuries before the autocracy of Augustus , Rome ( Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic ) had already accumulated most of its territory beyond the Italian Peninsula, including its former Mediterranean competitors Syracuse and Carthage . In the late Republic, Augustus definitively added Egypt to the ''Imperium Romanum''. Augustus's reforms, turning the Roman state into an empire, survived mostly unchanged until the Diocletian reform at end of the 3rd century, which turned the empire into a Tetrarchy . This was due to the near-collapse of the empire during the period of invasion, civil war, and economic chaos known as the Crisis Of The Third Century . While the political form given by Diocletian was short lived, it led to the division of the Empire into two halves. This allowed Roman rule to continue for two more centuries over the whole empire, although divided into the Eastern and the Western Roman Empire . The end of the Western Empire is traditionally set as 4th September 476 , when the Germanic chieftain Odoacer forced the abdication of the last Western Emperor Romulus Augustus and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople ; henceforth Odoacer ruled nominally as '' Dux '' on behalf of Constantinople. After another millennium, in 1453 , the Eastern Empire, better known as the Byzantine Empire, Fell To The Ottoman Turks . From the time of Augustus to the Fall Of The Western Empire , Rome dominated Western Eurasia , composing over half its population. The legacy of the Roman empires on the culture, law, language, religion, government, military, and architecture of Western civilization remains to the present day. Roman titles of power were adopted by most of the Successor State s and later entities with imperial pretensions, including the Frankish kingdom, the Holy Roman Empire , the Bulgarian Empires , the Russian/Kiev dynasties, and the German Empire . See also Roman Culture . HISTORIANS' VIEWPOINTS ON THE EVOLUTION OF IMPERIAL ROME and Julius Caesar ), 14 AD (yellow - conquests of Augustus ) and 117 (green - conquests by later emperors)]] Because the Roman empire lasted such a long time ( 31 BC – 1453 ), historians use various alternative names to distinguish different periods or eras. Such names include Western Roman Empire , Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire , which are used throughout this article to refer to the Roman Empire or the Western or Eastern part thereof. Traditionally, historians make a distinction between the Principate , the period following Augustus until the Crisis Of The Third Century , and the Dominate , the period from Diocletian until the end of the Empire in the West. According to this theory, during the Principate (from the Latin word ''princeps'', meaning "first citizen") the realities of dictatorship were carefully concealed behind Republican forms; while during the Dominate (from the word ''dominus'', meaning "Lord") imperial power showed its uncovered face, with golden crowns and ornate imperial ritual. More recently historians have established that the situation was far more nuanced: certain historical forms continued until the Byzantine period, more than one thousand years after they were created, and displays of imperial majesty were common from the earliest days of the Empire. AGE OF AUGUSTUS ( 31 BC – AD 14 ) Political developments As a matter of convenience, the Roman Empire is said to have begun with the constitutional settlement following the Battle Of Actium in 31 BC . In fact, the Republican institutions at Rome had been slowly undermined and set aside over the preceding Century , and Rome had been in continuous political crisis with periods of dictatorial rule since Sulla . The Augustan settlement proclaimed the "Republic restored" and retained the old republican institutions. However, the Emperor controlled all the armed forces and many provinces and in the city his word was considered of supreme authority. The increasingly thorough and visible power of the Emperor gradually developed into autocratic rule, while the republican institutions eroded into political meaninglessness. The long, peaceful and consensual reign of Augustus was essential in establishing this "restored Republic". Whereas his uncle Julius Caesar had established the undisguised rule of one man and was subsequently assassinated, Augustus retained republican forms and tried to de-emphasize his power while firmly retaining control. Augustus's reign was notable for several long-lasting achievements that would define the Empire:
One significant failure of Augustus was his inability to pacify and Romanize the German frontier. The fact that Julius Caesar had done this to Gaul has been credited by historians for the ultimate extension of the life of the empire by at least a century. Eventually, the Germanic barbarians would sack Rome and destroy the empire. In the Battle Of Teutoburg Forest during Augustus's rule, three Roman legions were wiped out by the Germanic tribes, partly due to poor planning by the general Publius Quintilius Varus . This failure resulted in the establishment of the rivers Rhine and Danube as the Natural northern border of the Empire. In the following centuries Germanic tribes would cross this border - vast and difficult to guard - to make incursions into the Empire. Cultural developments Main article: Roman Culture The Augustan period saw a tremendous outpouring of cultural achievement in the areas of poetry, history, sculpture and architecture. At the same time, a tremendous outpouring of energy in founding colonies and ''municipia'' , unrivalled in Rome before or after, succeeded in Romanizing extensive territories in the East, in Africa, in Hispania and Gaul , beyond those areas that were traditionally within the Roman sphere of influence. Sources The Age of Augustus is paradoxically far more poorly documented than the Late Republican period that preceded it. While Livy wrote his magisterial history during Augustus's reign and his work covered all of Roman history through 9 BC , only Epitome s survive of his coverage of the Late Republican and Augustan periods. Our important primary sources for this period include the:
Though primary accounts of this period are few, works of poetry, legislation and engineering from this period provide important insights into Roman life. Archeology, including Maritime Archeology , Aerial Surveys , Epigraphic inscriptions on buildings, and Augustan Coinage , has also provided valuable evidence about economic, social and military conditions. Secondary sources on the Augustan Age include Tacitus , Dio Cassius , Plutarch and Suetonius . Josephus 's '' Jewish Antiquities '' is the important source for Judea in this period, which became a Province during Augustus's reign. - 69 ) Augustus, leaving no sons, was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius , the son of his wife Livia from her first marriage. Augustus was a scion of the '' Gens '' Julia (the Julian family), one of the most ancient Patrician clans of Rome , while Tiberius was a scion of the ''gens'' Claudia , only slightly less ancient than the Julians. Their three immediate successors were all descended both from the ''gens'' Claudia, through Tiberius's brother Nero Claudius Drusus , and from ''gens'' Julia, either through Julia The Elder , Augustus's daughter from his first marriage ( Caligula and Nero ), or through Augustus's sister Octavia Minor ( Claudius ). Historians thus refer to their dynasty as "Julio-Claudian". Tiberius (14–37) The early years of Tiberius's reign were peaceful and relatively benign. Tiberius secured the power of Rome and enriched its treasury. However, Tiberius's reign soon became characterized by paranoia and slander. In . Caligula (37–41) At the time of Tiberius's death most of the people who might have succeeded him had been brutally murdered. The logical successor (and Tiberius's own choice) was his grandnephew, Germanicus's son Gaius (better known as Caligula). Caligula started out well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's records. Unfortunately, he quickly lapsed into illness. The Caligula that emerged in late 37 demonstrated features of mental instability that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as Encephalitis , which can cause mental derangement, Hyperthyroidism , or even a nervous breakdown (perhaps brought on by the stress of his position). Whatever the cause, there was an obvious shift in his reign from this point on, leading his biographers to think him insane. Suetonius reported a rumour that Caligula planned to appoint his favourite horse Incitatus to the Roman Senate. He ordered his soldiers to invade Britain to fight the Sea God Neptune , but changed his mind at the last minute and had them pick sea shells on the northern end of France instead. It is believed he carried on Incest uous relations with his sisters. He ordered a statue of himself to be erected in the Temple at Jerusalem , which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not been dissuaded from this plan by his friend king Herod . He ordered people to be secretly killed, and then called for them to his palace. When they did not appear, he would jokingly remark that they must have committed suicide. In 41, Caligula was assassinated by the commander of the guard Cassius Chaerea . The only member of the imperial family left to take charge was his uncle, Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus. Claudius (41–54) Claudius had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his family. He was, however, neither Paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor Insane like his nephew Caligula , and was therefore able to administer the empire with reasonable ability. He improved the Bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He also proceeded with the Conquest And Colonization Of Britain (in 43 ), and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. He ordered the construction of a winter port for Rome, at Ostia, thereby providing a place for Grain from other parts of the Empire to be brought in inclement weather. In his own family life, Claudius was less successful. His wife Messalina Cuckold ed him; when he found out, he had her executed and married his niece, Agrippina The Younger . She, along with several of his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power over him, and although we have conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have poisoned him in 54 . Claudius was deified later that year. The death of Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the 17-year-old Lucius Domitius Nero. Nero (54–69) Initially, Nero left the rule of Rome to his mother and his tutors, particularly , Armenia , Parthia , and Iudaea . Nero's inability to manage the rebellions and his basic incompetence became evident quickly and, in 68 , even the Imperial guard renounced him. Nero is best remembered by the rumour that he played the Lyre and sang during the Great Fire Of Rome in 64, and hence "fiddled while Rome burned". Nero is also remembered for his immense rebuilding of Rome following the fires. Nero also began one of the first wholesale persecutions of Christians. The civil wars which followed have led the year 69 to be known as the Year Of The Four Emperors , in which Galba , Otho , Vitellius , and Vespasian ruled in quick and violent succession, until Vespasian was able to solidify his power as emperor of Rome. REBELLIONS, UPRISINGS AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES In peacetime, it was relatively easy to rule the empire from its capital city, Rome. An eventual s were spread around the borders and the rebel leader would in normal circumstances have only one or two legions under his command. Loyal legions would be detached from other points of the empire and would eventually drown the rebellion in blood. This happened even more easily in cases of a small local native uprising as the rebels would normally have no great military experience. Unless the emperor was weak, incompetent, hated, and/or universally despised, these rebellions would be a local and isolated event. During real wartime however, which could develop from a rebellion or an uprising, like the massive Jewish Rebellion , this was totally and dangerously different. In a full-blown Military Campaign , the legions under the command of the generals like Vespasian were of a much greater number. Therefore a paranoid or wise emperor would hold some members of the general´s family as Hostages , to make certain of the latter's loyalty. In effect, Nero held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis the governor of Ostia , who were respectively the younger son and the brother-in-law of Vespasian. In normal circumstances this would be quite enough. In fact, the rule of Nero ended with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard who had been bribed in the name of Galba . It became all too obvious that the Praetorian Guard was a sword of Damocles , whose loyalty was all too often bought and who became increasingly greedy. Following their example the legions at the borders would also increasingly participate in the Civil War s. This was a dangerous development as this would weaken the whole Roman Army. The main enemy, in the West, were arguably the "barbarian tribes" behind the Rhine and the Danube . Augustus had tried to conquer them, but ultimately failed and these "barbarians" were greatly feared. But, by and large, they were left in peace, in order to fight amongst themselves, and were simply too divided to pose a serious threat. , the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent, c. 60 BC ]] Parthia , in the East, on the other hand, was too far away to be conquered. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, but the threat itself was ultimately impossible to destroy. In the case of a Roman civil war these two enemies would seize the opportunity to invade Roman territory in order to raid and plunder. The two respective military frontiers became a matter of major political importance due to the high number of legions stationed there. All too often the local generals would rebel, starting a new civil war. To control the western border from Rome was easy, as it was relatively close. To control both frontiers, at the same time, during wartime, was hard. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and Vice-versa . It was no longer enough to be a good administrator; emperors were increasingly near the troops in order to control them and no single Emperor could be at the two frontiers at the same time. This problem would plague the ruling emperors time and time again and many future emperors would follow this path to power. - 69 ) The forced suicide of emperor Nero , in 68 , was followed by a brief period of civil war (the first Roman Civil War since Antony 's death in 30 BC ) known as the year of the four emperors. Between June of 68 and December of 69 , Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba , Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian , first ruler of the Flavian Dynasty . This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political disturbances in the history of the Roman Empire . The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious implications, such as the outbreak of the Batavian Rebellion . FLAVIAN DYNASTY ( 69 - 96 ) The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticized, especially based on their more centralized style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalization of the senate, and a conclusive move away from ''princeps'', or first citizen, and toward ''imperator'', or emperor. Vespasian (69–79) Vespasian was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given rule over much of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. He had supported the imperial claims of Galba , after whose death Vespasian became a major contender for the throne. Following the suicide of Otho , Vespasian was able to take control of Rome's Winter Grain Supply in Egypt, placing him in a good position to defeat his remaining rival, Vitellius. On December 20, 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were able to occupy Rome. Vitellius was murdered by his own troops and, the next day, Vespasian, then sixty years old, was confirmed as Emperor by the Senate. Although Vespasian was considered an Autocrat by the senate, he mostly continued the weakening of that body that had been going since the reign of Tiberius. This was typified by his dating his accession to power from July 1 , when his troops proclaimed him emperor, instead of December 21 , when the Senate confirmed his appointment. Another example was his assumption of the censorship in 73, giving him power over who made up the senate. He used that power to expel dissident senators. At the same time, he increased the number of senators from 200, at that low level due to the actions of Nero and the year of crisis that followed, to 1000; most of the new senators coming not from Rome but from Italy and the urban centers within the western provinces. Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. To do this, he not only increased taxes, but created new forms of taxation. Also, through his power as censor, he was able to carefully examine the fiscal status of every city and province, many paying taxes based upon information and structures more than a century old. Through this sound fiscal policy, he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public works projects. It was he who first commissioned the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater); he also built a Forum whose centerpiece was a temple to Peace. In addition, he alloted sizable subsidies to the arts, creating a chair of rhetoric at Rome. Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces in his decades of office, having posts all across the empire, both east and west. In the west he gave considerable favoritism to Spain in which he granted Latin rights to over three hundred towns and cities, promoting a new era of urbanization throughout the western (i.e. formerly barbarian) provinces. Through the additions he made to the Senate he allowed greater influence of the provinces in the Senate, helping to promote unity in the empire. He also extended the borders of the empire on every front, most of which was done to help strengthen the frontier defenses, one of Vespasian's main goals. The crisis of 69 had wrought havoc on the army. One of the most marked problems had been the support lent by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best will of their province. This was mostly caused by the placement of native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in, a practice Vespasian stopped. He mixed auxiliary units with men from other areas of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited to help stop this. Also, to reduce further the chances of another military coup, he broke up the legions and, instead of placing them in singular concentrations, broke them up along the border. Perhaps the most important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion recruitment from exclusively Italy to Gaul and Spain, in line with the Romanization of those areas. Titus (79–81) Titus, the eldest son of Vespasian, had been groomed to rule. He had served as an effective general under his father, helping to secure the east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in erupted in Pompeii , and in 80, a fire decimated much of Rome. His generosity in rebuilding after these tragedies made him very popular. Titus was very proud of his work on the vast amphitheater begun by his father. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice during the year 80, celebrating with a lavish show that featured 100 Gladiator s and lasted 100 days. Titus died in 81 , at the age of 41 of what is presumed to be illness; it was rumored that his brother Domitian murdered him in order to become his successor, although these claims have little merit. Whatever the case, he was greatly mourned and missed. Domitian (81–96) All of the Flavians had rather poor relations with the Senate, due to their autocratic rule, however Domitian was the only one who encountered significant problems. His continuous control as consul and censor throughout his rule, the former his father sharing in much the same way of his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter having difficulty even obtaining, were unheard of. In addition, he often appeared in full military regalia as an Imperator , an affront to the idea of what the Principate-era emperor's power was based upon, the emperor as the Princeps . His reputation in the Senate aside, he kept the people of Rome happy through various measures, including donations to every resident of Rome, wild spectacles in the newly finished Colosseum, and continuing the public works projects of his father and brother. He also apparently had the good fiscal sense of his father, because although he spent lavishly his successors came to power with a well-endowed treasury. However, towards the end of his reign Domitian became extremely paranoid, which probably had its initial roots in the treatment he received by his father: although given significant responsibility, he was never trusted with anything important without supervision. This flowered into the severe and perhaps pathological repercussions following the short-lived rebellion in 89 of Antonius Saturninus, a governor and commander in Germany. Domitian's paranoia led to a large number of arrests, executions, and seizure of property (which might help explain his ability to spend so lavishly). Eventually it got to the point where even his closest advisers and family members lived in fear, leading them to his murder in 96 orchestrated by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia ), members of the Praetorian Guard and empress Domitia Longina . FIVE GOOD EMPERORS - THE ANTONINE DYNASTY ( 96 – 180 ) ]] The next century came to be known as the period of the "Five Good Emperors", in which the succession was peaceful though not Dynastic and the Empire was prosperous. The emperors of this period were Nerva (96–98), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), each being adopted by his predecessor as his successor during the former's lifetime. While their respective choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men they selected, it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact that none of them had a natural heir. Nerva (96-98) After his accession, Nerva went to set a new tone: he released those imprisoned for treason, banned future prosecutions for treason, restored much confiscated property, and involved the Roman Senate in his rule. He probably did so as a means to remain relatively popular (and therefore alive), but this did not completely aid him. Support for Domitian in the army remained strong, and in October 97 the Praetorian Guard laid siege to the Imperial Palace on the Palatine Hill and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Nerva then adopted Trajan, a commander of the armies on the German frontier, as his successor shortly thereafter in order to bolster his own rule. Casperius Aelianus , the Guard Prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, was later executed under Trajan. . ''Trajan's justice'']] Trajan (98-117) In 113, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier, Trajan marched first on Armenia. He deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthia itself, taking the cities of Babylon , Seleucia and finally the capital of Ctesiphon in 116. He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, whence he declared Mesopotamia a new province of the Empire and lamented that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great. But he did not stop there. Later in 116, he captured the great city of Susa . He deposed the Parthian king Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. Never again would the Roman Empire advance |